Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century:

A Review and Analysis*

Milton Leitenberg

Contents

1. Introduction: Past Estimates in the Twentieth Century

• Unique Aspects of Biological Weapons

2. National Programs in World War I

3. National Programs Prior to and During World War II

4. Post-World War II Programs

• The United States
• The USSR
• Iraq
• South Africa

5. Proliferation

6. The Experience of the Use of Biological Weapons by Non-State Actors

7. International Treaties and Arms Control

8. The BWC Review Conferences and the Verification Protocol

9. Undermining the International Regime: False Allegations of BW Use

10. Important Events in the Past Ten Years: Shocks to the Regime

• The Disclosure of the USSR’s Covert BW Program, Its Magnitude, and Contingent Events
• Iraq, UNSCOM, the UN Security Council Collapse and Its Implications
• The Post-1995 Issue of “BW Terrorism” and the US Furor

11. Prospects for the Future: An Assessment of Where Things Stand and Aspects that May Stimulate Further Interest in BW

*This paper was prepared for the 7th International Symposium on Protection against Chemical and Biological Warfare, Stockholm, Sweden, June 2001