October 20, 1997
Dianne E. Rennack, Analyst in Foreign Policy Legislation
Robert D. Shuey, Specialist in U.S. Foreign Policy and National Defense
Foreign Affairs and National Defense Division , CRS
The 105th Congress currently has under consideration new sanctions legislation specifically relating to religious persecution, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, conventional arms sales and transfers, export controls, terrorism, international narcotics control, travel restrictions, environment, workers rights (including issues of prison or forced labor and child labor), war crimes, torture, and human rights. Other, more routine, legislative initiatives (annual appropriations bills, for example) have become the means to target other countries for behavior of which the United States disapproves. Economic sanctions typically include measures such as trade embargoes; restrictions on particular exports or imports; denial of foreign assistance, loans, and investments, or control of foreign assets and economic transactions that involve U.S. citizens or businesses.
Some suggest that there is a post-Cold War trend toward sanctions becoming the method of first resort in foreign policy. A recent National Association of Manufacturers' report (March 1997) states that 61 U.S. laws and executive orders have been enacted in the last four years alone--targeting 35 countries--for foreign policy purposes. A frequently cited report issued by the Institute for International Economics (April 1997) concludes that U.S. unilateral sanctions may have cost U.S. some $15-19 billion in 1995 alone. Others contend that sanctions, unilateral or otherwise, are a peacetime means to improving international behavior in important areas such as human rights or weapons proliferation, and should not be avoided solely for trade concerns.
This report provides background on the range of actions that might be termed foreign policy sanctions and the events that might necessitate their use. Criteria are offered that legislators might consider to judge when sanctions might be appropriate, approaches that might be effective, aspects of the use of sanctions that are sometimes overlooked or not considered fully. The report provides an uncomplicated "map" of where sanctions policies and options currently lay in U. S. law.
Both the Congress and the President in recent years have increasingly relied on economic sanctions as a means to establish and promote their foreign policy objectives. The 105th Congress currently has under consideration new sanctions legislation relating to religious persecution, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, conventional arms sales and transfers, export controls, terrorism, international narcotics control, travel restrictions, environment, workers rights (including issues of prison or forced labor and child labor), war crimes, torture, and human rights. Legislative initiatives to address particular countries' behavior--most recently Sudan, China, Burma, and Russia--have been debated frequently throughout government and the business community, both in the United States and in international fora. Sanctions to promote foreign policy objectives have been regularly offered during the consideration of annual appropriations bills and authorization measures.
This report provides background on the range of actions that might be termed sanctions, and a set of criteria that legislators might consider when proposing them, to help legislators judge when sanctions might be appropriate and the approach that might be the most effective. Provided as well is an uncomplicated "map" of where sanctions policies and options currently lay in U. S. law.
Generally, economic sanctions might be defined as "coercive economic measures taken against one or more countries to force a change in policies, or at least to demonstrate a country's opinion about the other's policies.''l The most-often quoted study on sanctions defines the term as "...the deliberate, government-inspired withdrawal, or threat of withdrawal, of customary trade or financial relations."2 Economic sanctions typically include measures such as trade embargoes; restrictions on particular exports or imports; denial of foreign assistance, loans, and investments; or control of foreign assets and economic transactions that involve U. S. citizens or businesses. These definitions of economic sanctions would exclude diplomatic demarches, reductions in embassy staff or closing of embassies, mobilizing armed forces or going to war--tools clearly intended to change another country's behavior through other than economic means. The use of "carrots" (e.g., granting most-favored-nation status for another year; or selling advanced military aircraft to Taiwan to change China's behavior) would not qualify as a sanction.
In any sanctions debate, one might consider the following questions to assess the benefits and/or costs of imposing sanctions against a country, company, or individual:
Why do we apply sanctions? In instances where unilateral sanctions are imposed, does the law require it? Are Congress and the President in accord? Is the desired behavioral change reasonably possible (Fidel Castro abandoning the presidency, for example)? Is the sanctions designed for long-term cumulative effect? Some triggering factors--military coups d'etat, debt arrearage--result in mandatory sanctions but limit only a small range of economic interactions, such as foreign assistance. Some triggering factors, proliferation or international terrorism, for example, require mandatory sanctions but need the President or Secretary of State to determine that a violation of some standard has occurred. Still other sanctions are left entirely to the discretion of the executive branch as to whether they will be imposed, and so may become subject to other influences and factors beside the issue at hand.
The U. S. government may choose to impose economic sanctions:
What tools are available? All of the following tools have been used at one time or another, triggered by a variety of repugnant behaviors.
How important to the targeted country is our economic cooperation? Is the United States a significant trading partner, or only marginally engaged? At the time that sanctions were imposed against the former Yugoslavia, the United States took in only about 5 percent of that country's exports. The support of more substantial trading partners in Europe was needed to have any hope of having an impact. A recent study on bilateral sanctions considers geographic proximity, common language, volume of trade, a country's relative wealth, and membership in a common trading bloc--all factors that might determine the success or failure of a unilaterally imposed sanctions regime.3
What secondary consequences might sanctions have? Whether or not successful in achieving their central purpose, sanctions sometimes have undesirable-- perhaps unexpected--fallout. Sanctions against former Yugoslavia, for example, were particularly hard on the economies of Serbia's neighboring states. At the same time, some analysts argue that sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro actually bolstered nationalist political movements there. In another case, when the United States campaigned for European friends to join in sanctions against Iran by blocking investment in Iran's oil fields in 1995, nearly all of Europe declined, pointing out that they were running out of fuel sources that were not under some sanctions regime. A short while later, trading partners of Nigeria found themselves wanting to punish Nigeria for human rights issues but were unable to restrict trade with yet another oil producer. In another instance, long-standing sanctions against South Africa in the 1980s, some speculate, led that nation to develop weapons manufacturing capabilities- -conventional and nuclear--that remain cause for concern today. U.S. businesses frequently argue that U.S. sanctions that hinder their exports or imports in turn benefit their foreign competitors. Some contend that staying engaged as trading partners or investors in a problem country will have better long-term effect The United States seeks to isolate Cuba, for example, while Cuba's European trading partners contend that full trade relations afford them opportunities to discuss human rights concerns with the island nation. In nearly all cases where sanctions are applied for some duration, analysts express concern for the impact on the non-governmental population, particularly if food, medicine, or other basic human needs are affected.
What change is required for the sanctions to be lifted? When sanctions are imposed via enactment of public law, what is required to terminate the restrictions is usually clearly stated. If a policy is unevenly applied, however, the standard might be less clear. China, for example, as a nonmarket economy, is denied permanent most- favored nation status on the basis of laws relating to trade, nonmarket economies, and emigration. The annual debate to renew China's MFN status, however, rarely has much to do with freedom of emigration of China's population. If sanctions are applied for a lengthy period, other problems arise, or the circumstances that triggered the sanctions at the outset might evolve. The sought after change in behavior could be redefined over time, or multilateral or domestic support for the sanctions could deteriorate. In some instances, sanctions are imposed to achieve a goal that is unclear, ever-changing, or perhaps unattainable. In such circumstances, if the sanctions are lifted or waived, it may effectively signal a friendly change of policy; alternatively, if it appears that the targeted country has not budged at all from its sanctionable behavior, future attempts to achieve a standard of behavior through sanctions may be compromised. The constantly changing political landscape of the former Yugoslavia over the last seven years provides numerous incidents to demonstrate the dilemma of sending confusing signals to allies as well as the sanctioned state..
Would multilateral sanctions be more desirable and achievable? It is generally agreed that sanctions imposed by all or most of a country's trading partners (such as through the United Nations or other multinational organization) stand a much better chance of having an impact than unilateral restrictions or prohibitions. Consensus is difficult to reach among countries considering another country's behavior, however, and as a result multilateral sanctions are imposed infrequently. Comprehensive multilateral sanctions are even more rare. Attempts that fail to solidify international opinion against one country's objectionable behavior can actually give support to those committing the behavior (for example, every year the United States is condemned by the U.N. General Assembly for its unilateral sanctions regime against Cuba).
Sanctions may prohibit or restrict a variety of economic relations, and they are not applied similarly. Each sanction has its own duration, severity, and comprehensiveness or selectivity. Each section of law has its own terms for triggering the imposition, as well as reporting on, easing or tightening, waiving, and terminating the sanction. Some sanctions are mandatory; others provide discretionary authority to the President or his delegate as to their imposition. Nearly all laws include some sort of waiver authority that allows the President to not impose the sanction even if an incident warrants it. Only a few laws specifically spell out what recourse Congress might take when it finds itself in disagreement with the executive branch on either the imposition, waiving or termination of a sanction.
This survey does not include all sections of law that generally authorize the Executive branch to make and carry out foreign policy; although such authority sometimes is cast as sanction legislation when the President changes policy to the detriment of a targeted country. Cutting back on foreign assistance) for example, might be an administrative decision, or it might be a step taken to punish a country in violation of any number of international standards.
The following list groups laws into broad foreign policy categories. A brief note of what form the sanction might take is included parenthetically. Many of the restrictions of foreign assistance will be found in the FY1997 foreign operations appropriations act (as currently extended by the continuing appropriations act, Public Law 105-46); such a law is enacted anew each fiscal year (or, in absence of an appropriations act, a continuing resolution may extend the terms of a previous law). For specific countries, any law written specifically to address conditions in, or relations with, that country would apply, but other laws of general effect written to address an issue might apply to that country as well. This list should not be considered comprehensive but is an index of basic sanctions legislation.
§ 621, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2381) (authorizes President to administer foreign assistance programs and policy; authorizes the President to prohibit foreign assistance because of illegal activities, such as fraud or corruption)
§ 633A, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2393a) (prohibits foreign assistance when certain informational requests are not met by recipient)
§ 3, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2753) (authorizes President to administer U.S. government arms sales and transfers with conditions and exceptions)
§ 4, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2754) (prohibits most U.S. government arms transfer financing, loans and credits, to undeveloped countries, with some exceptions)
§ 38, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2778) (authorizes the President to limit sales and transfers in interest of world peace and security of United States)
§ 42, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2791) (authorizes the President to cancel arms sales, credits, or contracts on national security grounds)
§ 5(b), Trading with the Enemy Act (Public Law 65-91; 50 USC App. 5(b))4 (authorizes the President to investigate, regulate, or prohibit transactions, or to freeze assets)
title II, National Emergencies Act (Public Law 94-412; 50 USC 1621, 1622) (authorizes declaration and administration of national emergencies-- required to administer authority under International Emergency Economic Powers Act)
§ 203, International Emergency Economic Powers Act (Public Law 95-223; 50 USC 1701) (authorizes control or prohibition of most financial transactions)
§ 2(b)(5)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(5)(B)) (restricts Export-Import Bank services with country engaged in armed conflict against U.S. armed forces)
§ 5, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72, 50 USC App. 2404) (imposes national security export controls)
§ 6, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2405) (imposes foreign policy export controls)
§ 11, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2410) (imposes penalties for violations of Act, generally)
§ l lA, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2410a) (prohibits contracts, importation for regulations violators)
§ 233, Trade Expansion Act of 1962 (Public Law 87-794; 19 USC 1864) (Authorizes President to sanction importation for violations of sec. 5 Export Administration Act national security controls)
U.S. trade policy legislation sometimes used for foreign policy objectives.
§ 125, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2135) (authorizes President to terminate or withdraw from trade agreements)
§ 126, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2136) (authorizes President to terminate or withdraw from trade agreements where reciprocal nondiscriminatory treatment has not been upheld)
§ 604, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2483) (authorizes President to change the Harmonized Tariff Schedules)
§ 212(b)(4), (5), Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67; 19 USC 2702(b)(4), (5)) (Denies beneficiary country status)
§ 232, Trade Expansion Act of 1962 (Public Law 87-794; 19 USC 1862) (Authorizes President to set duties or import restrictions based on national security issues)
§ 620(d), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(d)) (prohibits foreign assistance loans)
§ 212(b)(4), (6) Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67; 19 USC 2702(b)(4)) (Denies beneficiary country status)
§ 620(s), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(s)) (conditions foreign assistance and loans)
§ 3(f), Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629, 22 USC 2753(f)) (prohibits sales or leases to nuclear explosive device proliferators)
§ 38, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2778) (establishes penalty for violating U S. import/export terms for defense articles and services)
§ 6(k), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2405(k)) (restricts exportation)
§§ 72, 73, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2797a, 2797b) (requires sanctions against proliferators)
§ 6(1), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2405(1)) (restricts exportation)
§ 11B, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2410b) (restricts contracts, denies export licenses, may deny importation)
§§ 101, 102, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2799aa, 2799aa-1) (prohibits foreign or military assistance)
§ 701(b), International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22 USC 262d(b)) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 2(b)(1)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(1)(B)) (denies Bank support where President determines in U.S. national interests related to terrorism, nuclear proliferation, environmental protection, human rights)
§ 2(b)(4), 2(b)(5)(C) Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(4)) (prohibits Export-Import Bank support)
§ 5(b), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2404) (restricts exports for national security reasons)
Export-Import Bank of the United States, title I, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (Prohibits Export-Import Bank funding to other than non-nuclear weapon state)
§ 506, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits use of foreign assistance funds for most nuclear goods exportation)
§ 129, Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (Public Law 83-703; 42 USC 2158) (prohibits transfer of nuclear materials, equipment, related technology)
§ 304(b), Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-242; 42 USC 2155a) (authorizes Department of Commerce to regulate exports significant to nuclear explosion purposes)
§ 402, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-242; 42 USC 2153a) (prohibits exports related to nuclear enrichment)
§ 821, Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act of 1994 (Public Law 103-236; 22 USC 3201 note) (prohibits contracts with individuals)
§ 823, Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act of 1994 (Public Law 103-236; 22 USC 3201 note) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 824, Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act of 1994 (Public Law 103-236; 22 USC 3201 note) (prohibits financial institutions from financing certain transactions)
§ 620G, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2378a) (prohibits foreign assistance for most sales of antitank shells containing depleted uranium penetrating component)
§ 81, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2798) (requires import and U.S. government procurement sanctions against CW/BW proliferators)
§ 6(m), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2405(m)) (restricts exportation)
§ 11C, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2410c) (prohibits procurement contracts and importation)
§ 307, Chemical and Biological Weapons Control and Warfare Elimination Act of 1991 (Public Law 102-182; 22 USC 5605) (terminates most foreign assistance, arms sales, certain exports; may restrict international financial institution support, U S. bank support, exports, imports, diplomatic relations, aviation access to United States)
§ 2332c, 18 USC (added by § 521, Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996) (makes use of chemical weapon in certain instances a criminal offense)
§ 620(f), (h), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(f), (h)) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 2(b)(2), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(2)) (prohibits Export-Import Bank transactions with Marxist- Leninist state)
§ 502(b)(1), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462) (denies beneficiary developing country status)
§ 5(b), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2404) (authorizes the President to restrict exportation to Communist states, to states with policies "adverse to the national security interests of the United States")
§ 43, Bretton Woods Agreements Act (Public Law 79-171; 22 USC 286aa) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 212(b)(1), Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67; 19 USC 2702(b)(1)) (Denies beneficiary country status)
Coercive family planning programs (including abortion and involuntary sterilization).
§ 104(f), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Prohibits development assistance from being made available for coercive family planning programs)
Development Assistance, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (Prohibits development assistance from being made available for coercive family planning programs)
§ 518, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (Prohibits development assistance from being made available for coercive family planning programs)
§ 116, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2151n) (prohibits most U S foreign economic assistance to any country the government of which engages in a "consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights")
§ 502B, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2304) (prohibits most U S. security assistance to any country the government of which engages in a "consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights")
§ 239(i), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2199(i)) (requires Overseas Private Investment Corporation to consider human rights when conducting programs)
§ 660, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2420) (prohibits funds for police training)
§ 701(a), (b), (f) International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22 USC 262d) (opposes bank loans)
International Narcotics Control, title III Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (Prohibits anti-narcotics funding if state found to be engaged in human rights violations)
§ 579, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (opposes most international financial institution transactions for any country engaged in female genital mutilation)
§ 2(b)(1)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(1)(B)) (denies Bank support where President determines in U S. national interests related to terrorism, nuclear proliferation, environmental protection, human rights)
§ 568, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101 (c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance, transactions under the Arms Export Control Act, and international financial institution support to any country which knowingly grants sanctuary to certain war criminals)
§ 231A, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2191a) (limits Overseas Private Investment Corporation activities)
§§ 502(b)(7), (c)(7), 504, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462, 2464) (authorizes the President to take into account country's worker rights record when considering beneficiary developing country status)
§ 212(b)(7) Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67; 19 USC 2702(b)(7)) (denies beneficiary country status)
§ 538, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (restricts foreign assistance to projects where worker rights violated)
§ 307, Tariff Act of 1930 (Public Law 71-361; 19 USC 1307) (prohibits importation of goods produced or manufactured with prison labor)
§ 118, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 215 lp-l) (denies foreign assistance related to deforestation)
§ 2(b)(1)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(1)(B)) (denies Export-Import Bank support where President determines in U S. national interests related to terrorism, nuclear proliferation, environmental protection, human rights)
§ 508, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620(c), (q) Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370) (prohibits or suspends foreign assistance)
§ 512, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620A, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2371) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620G, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2377) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620H, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2378) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 40, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2780) (prohibits sale, transfer, lease, loan, grant, credit, foreign assistance associated with munitions items to terrorist states)
§ 40A, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2781) (prohibits sale or license for export of defense articles or defense services to country determined by President, in a fiscal year, to be not cooperating with U S. antiterrorism efforts)
§ 505, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-83; 22 USC 2349aa-9) (Authorizes the President to ban importation of goods and services from state found to support international terrorism)
§ 701(a)(2), (f), International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22 USC 262d(a)(2), (f)) (opposes international financial institution loans to those offering refuge to skyjackers)
§ 1621, International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22 USC 262p-4q) (opposes International financial institution loans to terrorist states)
§ 6, Bretton Woods Agreements Act Amendments, 1978 (Public Law 95-435; 22 USC 286e-11) (requires opposition to International Monetary Fund assistance)
§ 502(b)(6), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462)
§ 6(j), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2405(j)) ("Fenwick amendment," requires export licenses)
§ 527, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits bilateral foreign assistance)
§ 551, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance to any country providing lethal military equipment to a terrorist state)
§ 2332b, 18 USC (added by § 321, Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996) (makes terrorist acts that transcend national boundaries a criminal offense)
§ 2332d, 18 USC (added by § 321, Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996) (makes financial transactions with a terrorist state a criminal offense)
§ 2339A, 18 USC (added by § 321, Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996) (makes providing material support to a terrorist or terrorist state a criminal offense)
§ 2(b)(1)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(1)(B)) (denies Bank support where President determines in U S. national interests related to terrorism, nuclear proliferation, environmental protection, human rights)
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195, 22 USC 2227) (Prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U S. proportionate share to international organizations when those organizations run programs in Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine Liberation Organization)
§ 620(u), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(u)) (conditions foreign assistance on arrearage of UN dues)
§ 5, United Nations Participation Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-264, 22 USC 287c) (restricts economic and communications relations)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 533, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance and transactions under the Arms Export Control Act to any country not in compliance with U N sanctions against Iraq, Serbia and Montenegro; authorizes the President to impose importation sanctions on the same countries)
§ 402, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2432) ("Jackson-Vanik amendment," restricts commercial agreements, denies of most-favored- nation status)
§ 620(t), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(u)) (prohibits foreign assistance and assistance under Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954)
§ 486, 487, 490, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2291e, 2291f, 2291j) (restricts foreign assistance, narcotics control assistance)
§ 13, International Development Association Act (Public Law 86-565; 22 USC 284k) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 802, Narcotics Control Trade Act (title VIII of Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2492) (denies preferential tariff treatment, imposes importation duty, curtails air traffic between country and United States, reduces U S customs staff)
§ 803, Narcotics Control Trade Act (title VIII of Public Law 93-618, 19 USC 2493) (restricts sugar quota)
§ 701(b)(4), International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22 USC 262d(b)(4)) (requires U S executive directors to international financial institutions to consider MIA issue when voting on international financial institution loans to Vietnam, Laos, Russia, independent states of former Soviet Union, and Cambodia)
§ 403, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2433) (authorizes the President to deny nondiscriminatory trade treatment, trade-related credits and investment guarantees, or commercial agreements to countries not cooperating with U S efforts to account fully for MIA in Southeast Asia)
§ 2(b)(5), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(5)) (prohibits Export-Import Bank credits)
§ 502(b)(2), (b)(3), (e)(2), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; l9 USC 2462) (para (2) in part, is specifically directed at Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
§ 502(b)(5), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462) (conditions beneficiary developing country status)
§ 7, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App 2406) (restricts exports relating to short supply)
§ 8, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App 2407) (prohibits cooperating with foreign boycotts)
§ 513, 514, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 552, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (withholds foreign assistance from nations whose agents or representatives in the United States are cited as parking scofflaws)
§ 620I, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2379) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620(a), (g), (j), (1), (o), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620(e), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(e)) (suspends foreign assistance)
§ 12, International Development Association Act (Public Law 86-565; 22 USC 284j) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 502(b)(4), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462) (denies beneficiary developing country status)
§ 212(b)(2), (3), Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67; 19 USC 2702(b)(2), (3)) (denies beneficiary country status)
§ 6(n), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2405(n)) (restricts exports)
Current Law Related to Specific Countries
Afghanistan
§ 620D, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2374) (prohibits foreign assistance)
Angola
§ 2(b)(11), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC 635(b)(11)) (prohibits Export-Import Bank credits)
§ 316, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1987 (Public Law 99-661; 10 USC 2304 note) (prohibits Department of Defense contracts)
Azerbaijan
Assistance for the New Independent States (NIS) of the Former Soviet Union, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance to Azerbaijan if that country is found to be blockading or using other offensive means of force against Armenia and Nogorno -Karabakh)
Bahrain
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Stinger missiles to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
Bosnia-Hercegovina
Assistance for Eastern Europe and the Baltic States, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits use of foreign assistance and SEED Act money for most housing development in Bosnia- Hercegovina)
Assistance for Eastern Europe and the Baltic States, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) oftitle I of Public Law 104-208) (withholds economic revitalization funds for Bosnia-Hercegovina until President certifies as to withdrawal of foreign forces and cessation of cooperation between Iranian and Bosnian intelligence communities)
Burma (Myanmar)
§ 138, Customs and Trade Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-382) (authorizes President to impose such economic sanctions as he determines to be appropriate)
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195, 22 USC 2227) (prohibits use of U S foreign assistance paid in as U S proportionate share to international organizations when those organizations run programs in Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine Liberation Organization)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 570, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits most foreign assistance; requires "no" votes in international financial institutions; authorizes President to restrict visas and impose investment sanctions)
Cambodia
§ 906, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-83) (prohibits certain aid to Khmer Rouge)
§ 541, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance to any country cooperating with Khmer Rouge; prohibits assistance to any military facilitating timber exportation by Khmer Rouge)
Chile
§ 726? International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1981 (Public Law 97-113) (prohibits most security and military assistance to Chile until the President certifies on certain conditions in human rights, terrorism, extraterritorial assassination)
Congo (former Zaire)
International Military Education and Training, title III, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) oftitle I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits IMET funding to Zaire)
Foreign Military Financing Program, title III, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits FMF funding to Zaire)
Cuba
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227) (prohibits use of U S foreign assistance paid in as U S. proportionate share to international organizations when those organizations run programs in Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine Liberation Organization)
§ 620(a), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195, 22 USC 2370(a)) (prohibits foreign assistance; authorizes total embargo) § 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits indirect foreign assistance)
Guatemala
International Military Education and Training, title III, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101 (c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits International Military Education and Training funding)
Foreign Military Financing Program, title III, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits Foreign Military Financing)
Haiti.
§ 569, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits most foreign assistance)
Indonesia
International Military Education and Training, title III, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (restricts International Military Education and Training funding)
Iran
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227) (prohibits use of U. S. foreign assistance paid in as U S. proportionate share to international organizations when those organizations run programs in Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine Liberation Organization)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits indirect foreign assistance)
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Stingers to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
§ Iran Sanctions Act of 1990 (§ 586 through 586J of Public Law 101-513) (made applicable to Iran pursuant to § 1603, Public Law 102-484; see discussion under "Iraq")
§ 1604, Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 50 USC 1701 note) (sanctions individuals for contributing to Iraq's or Iran's efforts to acquire chemical, biological, nuclear, or destabilizing numbers and types of advanced conventional weapons)
§ 1605, Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 50 USC 1701 note) (sanctions foreign countries for contributing to Iraq's or Iran's efforts to acquire chemical, biological, nuclear, or destabilizing numbers and types of advanced conventional weapons)
Iraq
§ 586C, 586F, 586G, Iraq Sanctions Act (in title V of the Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1991; Public Law 101-513) (continues President's imposition of trade embargo; prohibits arms sales, foreign military financing programs, export licenses for U.S. Munitions List items, items controlled for national security or foreign policy reasons, and nuclear equipment, materials, and technology. Requires U. S. vote against international financial institution funding, prohibited Export- Import bank funding, Commodity Credit Corporation assistance, and most U. S. foreign assistance)
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227) (prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U. S. proportionate share to international organizations when those organizations run programs in Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine Liberation Organization)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits indirect foreign assistance)
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Stingers to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
§ 533, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance and transactions under the Arms Export Control Act to any country not in compliance with U.N. sanctions against Iraq, Serbia and Montenegro)
§ 1604, Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 50 USC 1701 note) (sanctions individuals for contributing to Iraq's or Iran's efforts to acquire chemical, biological, nuclear, or destabilizing numbers and types of advanced conventional weapons)
§ 1605, Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 50 USC 1701 note) (sanctions foreign countries for contributing to Iraq's or Iran's efforts to acquire chemical, biological, nuclear, or destabilizing numbers and types of advanced conventional weapons)
Kuwait
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Stingers to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
Liberia
Foreign Military Financing Program, title III, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits FMF funding to Liberia)
Libya
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227) (prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U. S. proportionate share to international organizations when those organizations run programs in Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine Liberation Organization)
§ 504, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-83) (authorizes the President to prohibit importation and exportation of goods and services from/to Libya)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits indirect foreign assistance)
Mexico
§ 587, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101 (c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (withholds foreign assistance until certain narcotics-related conditions are met)
Nicaragua
§ 722, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-83) (prohibits foreign assistance and arms sales to paramilitary organizations and insurgent groups in Nicaragua)
North Korea
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227) (prohibits use of U. S. foreign assistance paid in as U. S. proportionate share to international organizations when those organizations run programs in Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine Liberation Organization)
International Organizations and Programs, title IV, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits IO & P funding from being made available for Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO) programs)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits indirect foreign assistance)
Oman
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Singers to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
Pakistan
§ 620E(e), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2375(e)) (prohibits military assistance and military sales)
Panama
§ 1302, National Defense Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 1989 (Public Law 100- 456; 22 USC 2151 note) (prohibits U. S. funding for Panamanian Defense Force)
People's Republic of China Public Law 99-183 (99 Stat. 1174) (requires certification that China is not violating sec. 129 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954)
§ 103, International Development and Finance Act of 1989 (Public Law 101- 240; 12 USC 635 note) (Prohibits finance of trade with, or credits, loan, credit guarantees, insurance or reinsurance to China; waived on day it was signed into law)
§ 902, Foreign Relations Authorization Act, Fiscal Years 1990 and 1991 (Public Law 101 -246; 22 USC 2151 note) (Continues: suspension Overseas Private Investment Corporation insurance, reinsurance, financing or guarantees; suspension new projects by the Trade and Development Agency; suspension of exports of most defense articles on the U. S. Munitions List (USML); and nuclear trade and cooperation. Prohibits: export licenses for crime control and detection equipment; Suspends: U S satellite exports and liberalization of multilateral export controls)
§ 610, Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 1990 (Public Law 101-162). (prohibits State Department appropriations to be used for approving export licenses to China for launch of U S -built satellites; waived on case-by-case basis)
International Organizations and Programs, title IV, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits U S funds payable to UNFPA from being applied to programs in China)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits indirect foreign assistance)
Persian Gulf region
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Stingers to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
Qatar
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Stingers to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
Russia
Assistance for the New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act? ]997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (Prohibits funds under this paragraph from being made available to Russia unless that government is implementing comprehensive economic reforms, or if that government is found to be transferring such funds to support expropriation or property seizure. Prohibits funding under this paragraph unless President determines Russia has terminated certain nuclear technology exchanges with Iran)
Saudi Arabia
§ 1306, National Defense Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 1989 (Public Law 100- 456) (limits number and kind of F-15s to be made available to Saudi Arabia)
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Stingers to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
Serbia and Montenegro
§ 1511, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994 (Public Law 103-160; 50 USC 1701 note) (prohibits broad range of relations, freezes assets, travel, assistance, international financial institution support)
§ 533, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance and transactions under the Arms Export Control Act to any country not in compliance with U.N. sanctions against Iraq, Serbia and Montenegro)
§ 540, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (reaffirms § 1511 of Public Law 103-160)
[Former] Soviet Union/East Bloc.
§ 11A, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2410a) (prohibits exports)
Assistance for the New Independent States (NIS) of the Former Soviet Union, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (Prohibits foreign assistance to any NIS violating another NIS's sovereignty)
Sudan
Foreign Military Financing Program, title III, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title l of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits FMF funding to Sudan)
§ 5077 Foreign Operations, Export Financing7 and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits direct foreign assistance)
Syria
§ 3077 Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227) (prohibits use of U S foreign assistance paid in as U. S. proportionate share to international organizations when those organizations run programs in Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine Liberation Organization)
§ 5077 Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits direct foreign assistance)
§ 5167 Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as stated in § 3077 Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations7 Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits indirect foreign assistance)
Turkey
§ 620(x), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(x)) (suspends military assistance and transactions)
§ 588, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (limits Economic Support funds)
Ukraine
Assistance for the New Independent States (NIS) of the Former Soviet Union, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (Prohibits foreign assistance to Ukraine if that country is engaged in military cooperation with Libya)
United Arab Republic
§ 529, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208) (prohibits availability of Stingers to countries bordering the Persian Gulf)
FOOTNOTES:
1. Carter, Barry E., International Economic Sanctions: Improving the Haphazard U.S. Legal Regime. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. P. 4.
2. Hufbauer, Gary Clyde, Jeffrey J. Schott and Kimberly Ann Elliott, Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1990 (second edition). P. 2.
3. Hufbauer, Gary Clyde and Kimberly Ann Elliott, Tess Cyrus, and Elizabeth Winston. U.S. Economic Sanctions: Their Impact on Trade, Jobs. and Wages. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1997. 17 p. and tables.
4. The Trading with the Enemy Act continues to apply only to Cuba and North Korea. Presidential authority to impose similar national emergency-related sanctions may be found in the National Emergencies Act and the International Emergency Economic Powers Act.