Back to 2025 Home Page"Agreement Governing the Activities of the States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies" 1979. On-line, Internet 1979, available from: gopher://gopher.law.cornell.edu:70/00/foreign/ fletcher/BH766.txt.
Ahrens, T. J. and Harris A. W. "Deflection and Fragmentation of Near Earth Asteroids," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Brown, Sen George E. Jr. The Threat of Large Earth-Orbit Crossing Asteroids: Hearings before the House Sub-Committee on Science, Space, and Technology. 103d Congress, 1st sess., 1993.
Bowell, Edward and Karri Muinonen. "Earth Crossing Asteroids and Comets: Ground-based Search Strategies," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Canavan, Gregory H. "The Cost and Benefit of Near-Earth Object Detection and Interception," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Carusi, A. et al. "Near Earth Objects: Present Search Programs," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Chapman, Clark R. and David Morrison. "Impacts on the Earth by asteroids and comets: Assessing the hazard." Nature. 6 January 1994, 33-40.
Clube, Victor and Bill Napier. Cosmic Winter. Basil Blackwell, 1993.
Cooling, B. F., ed. Air Superiority. Washington, D. C.: Center for Air Force History, 1994.
"C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake)," n.p.,: on-line, Internet, 30 May 1996, available from http://medicine.wustl.edu/%7Ekronkg/1996_B2.html.
Darrah, J. "Near Earth Object Search with Ground-Based Electro-Optical Surveillance System (GEODSS)." A Presentation Prepared for Plenary Session I: Threat Workshop, 22 May 1995.
Director, Test and Evaluation and Technology Requirements and U.S. Naval War College. "High Energy Particle Beam (HEPB) Warhead." Technologies Initiatives Game 95 (Systems Handbook), 18-22 September 1995.
Director, Test and Evaluation and Technology Requirements and U.S. Naval War College. "Anti-Material Biological Agents." Technologies Initiatives Game 95 (Systems Handbook). 18-22 September 1995.
Gehrels, Tom. "Collisions with Comets and Asteroids." Scientific American. March 1996, 57-59.
Gehrels, Tom. "Spacewatch." A Presentation Prepared for Plenary Session I: Threat Workshop. 22 May 1995.
Gehrels, Tom, ed. Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Harris, Alan et al. The Deflection Dilemma: Use vs. Misuse of Technologies for Avoiding Interplanetary Hazards. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Center for Radiophysics and Space Research, 3 Feb 94.
Hartmann, W. K. and A. Sokolov. "Evaluating Space Resources," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Hecht, Jeff. "Asteroid 'airburst' may have devastated New Zealand." New Scientist. 5 October 1991, 19.
Hellstern, LCDR Mark J. et al. "Spacelift - Integration of Aerospace Core Competencies." A 2025 White Paper. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College, 1996.
Hyde, Roderick et al. "Cosmic Bombardment III: Ways and Means of Effectively Intercepting the Bomblets." A Presentation Prepared for the NASA International NEO Workshop, 14 Jan 1992.
"ISO, unique explorer of the invisible cool universe," ESA Presse, no. 21-95, 07 October 1995. On-line, Internet, available from http://isowww.estec.esa.nl/activities/info/info2195e.html.
Kobres, Bob. "Meteor Defense." Whole Earth Review. Fall 1987, 70-73.
Lewis, John S. Rain of Iron and Ice. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996.
Johnson, L. et al. "Preparing for Planetary Defense." A Spacecast 2020 White Paper. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College, 1995.
Melosh, H. J., I. V. Nemchinov and Yu. I. Zetzer, "Non-Nuclear Asteroid Diversion," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
"Meteorite House Call." Sky & Telescope. August 1993, 13.
Morrison, David et al. "The Impact Hazard," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Nadis, Steve. "Asteroid Hazards Stir Up Defense Debate." Nature 375. 18 May 1995, 174.
NASA Ames Space Science Division. The Spaceguard Survey: Hazard of Cosmic Impacts. 1996.
Powell, C. "Asteroid Hunters." Scientific American. April 1993, 34-40.
Proceedings of the 1993 Space Surveillance Workshop. Lexington, Mass.; R. W. Miller and R. Lincoln Laboratory, 1993.
Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop. Edited by G. H. Canavan,. J. C. Solem, and J. D. G. Rather, Los Alamos, N. Mex,: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1992.
"Satellites Detect Record Meteor." Sky & Telescope. June 1994, 11.
Shafer, B.P. et al. "The Coupling of Energy to Asteroids and Comets," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Sikes, L. R. and D. M. Davis. "The Yields of Soviet Strategic Weapons." Scientific American. January 1987, 29-37.
Simonenko, V.A. et al. "Defending the Earth Against Impacts from Large Comets and Asteroids," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
Solem, Johndale C. and Charles M. Snell. "Terminal Intercept for Less Than One Orbital Period Warning," in Tom Gehrels, ed., Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
The Spaceguard Survey: Report of the NASA International Near-Earth-Object Detection Workshop. Edited by David Morrison. Pasadena: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1992.
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, In Outer Space and Under Water (1963). On-line Internet, date, available on: gopher://gopher.law.cornell.edu:70/00/foreign/ fletcher/BH454.txt.
Treaty On Principles Governing The Activities Of States In The Exploration And Use Of Outer Space, Including The Moon And Other Celestial Bodies (1967), in Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements. Washington, D.C.: United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 1982.
2025 Concept, No. 200013. "Quantum Effect Communications." 2025 Concepts Database. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996.
2025 Concept, No. 200045. "Defending the High Ground of the Earth-Moon System." 2025 Concepts Database. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996.
2025 Concept, No. 900393 "Chemical Morphing Weapon." 2025 Concepts Database. (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996.
2025 Concept, No. 900394 "Gravity Manipulation." 2025 Concepts Database. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996.
2025 Concept, No. 900412 "Change Detection." 2025 Concepts Database. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996.
Tyson, Peter. "Comet Busters." Planetary Defense Workshop: An International Technical Meeting on Active Defense of the Terrestrial Biosphere from Impacts by Large Asteroids and Comets. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 22-26 May 95.
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. International Conference on Near-Earth-Objects. United States, 1995.
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USAF Scientific Advisory Board. New World Vistas: Air and Space Power for the 21st Century. Unpublished drafts, the Directed Energy Volume, the Recommended Actions Executive Summary Volume, the Space Applications Volume, and the Space Technologies Volume. 15 December 1995.
Whipple, A. and P. Shelus. "Long-Term Dynamical Evolution to the Minor Planet (4179) Toutatis." Icarus 408. 1993, 105.
Wood, Lowell L. et al. "Cosmic Bombardment IV: Averting Catastrophe In the Here-And-Now." A Presentation to Problems of Earth Protection Against the Impact With NEOs, 26-30 September 1994.
1. Much information was gathered from reports from recent conferences and workshops conducted to increase awareness and incite action in developing a cooperative solution within the global community, including: The Spaceguard Survey: Report of the NASA International Near-Earth-Object Detection Workshop, ed. David Morrison, (Pasadena, Calif.: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1992); Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, eds. G. H. Canavan,. J. C. Solem, and J. D. G. Rather (Los Alamos, N.Mex..: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1992); Problems of Earth Protection Against the Impact with Near-Earth-Objects (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 1994).
2. Peter Tyson, "Comet Busters," Planetary Defense Workshop: An International Technical Meeting on Active Defense of the Terrestrial Biosphere from Impacts by Large Asteroids and Comets, (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 22-26 May 1995).
3. Tom Gehrels, "Collisions with Comets and Asteroids," Scientific American, (March 1996), 57.
4. "C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake)," n.p.,: on-line, Internet, 30 May 1996, available from http://medicine.wustl.edu/%7Ekronkg/1996_B2.html.
5. Bob Kobres, "Meteor Defense," Whole Earth Review (Fall 1987): 70-73.
6. Victor Clube and Bill Napier, Cosmic Winter (Basil Blackwell, June 1993), 1-15.
7. The NASA Ames Space Science Division, The Spaceguard Survey, Hazard of Cosmic Impacts (1996), 2.1.
8. Steve Nadis, "Asteroid Hazards Stir Up Defense Debate," Nature 375 (18 May 1995): 174.
9. "Meteorite House Call," Sky & Telescope August 1993, 13.
10. John S. Lewis, Rain of Iron and Ice (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996), 176-82.
11. A. Whipple and P. Shelus, "Long-Term Dynamical Evolution to the Minor Planet (4179) Toutatis," Icarus 408 1993, 105.
12. C. Powell, "Asteroid Hunters," Scientific American, April 1993, 34-40.
13. "Satellites Detect Record Meteor," Sky & Telescope, June 1994, 11.
14. Clark R. Chapman and David Morrison, "Impacts on the Earth by asteroids and comets: assessing the hazard," Nature 367 (6 January 1994): 35.
16. Jeff Hecht, "Asteroid 'airburst' may have devastated New Zealand," New Scientist, 5 October 1991, 19.
17. The Spaceguard Survey: Report of the NASA International Near-Earth-Object Detection Workshop, ed. David Morrison (Pasadena, Calif.: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1992), 8.
18. The NASA Ames Space Science Division, 2.4.
20. Gregory H. Canavan, "The Cost and Benefit of Near-Earth Object Detection and Interception" in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994),1157-88.
22. Gregory H. Canavan, 1157-88.
24. The NASA Ames Space Science Division, 8.1 and 9.3.
25. Ronald R. Fogleman and Sheila E. Widnall, memorandum to Dr McCall, New World Vistas, 15 December 1995, attach 1.
26. USAF Scientific Advisory Board, New World Vistas: Air and Space Power for the 21st Century (unpublished draft, the recommended actions executive summary volume, 15 December 1995), 63.
27. W. K. Hartmann and A. Sokolov, "Evaluating Space Resources," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: The University of Arizona Press, 1994), 1216.
29. This section was contributed by Ms Iole De Angelis, a graduate student at the International Space University, Strasbourg, France. Her participation in the 2025 Project came at the request of Air University to provide expertise in the areas of space treaties and international law. In addition, her insights lend an international flavor to a truly global problem.
30. "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies," Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements (Washington D. C.: United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 1982), 48-50.
32. "Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies," 1979, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 30 May 1996, available from gopher://gopher.law.cornell.edu:70/00/foreign/fletcher.
34. "Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water," 1963, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 30 May 1996, available from gopher://gopher.law.cornell.edu:70/00/foreign/fletcher.BH454.txt.
35. This section was contributed by Ms Iole De Angelis.
36. Meteor, dir. by Ronald Neame, prod. by Arnold Orgoline and Theodore Pareign (Hollywood: Orion Studios, 1979). The motion picture depicts a nuclear weapon system used to mitigate an ECO predicted to impact Earth.
37. The juste retour policy forces the governmental and private interests into cooperation: from a given amount of money one government puts in the common project, private enterprises of its country receive comparable amounts to build the components. For example, there is a project that costs $100; country "A" finances for $50; country "B" for $30; and country "C" for $20. So the enterprises of country "A" will receive contracts for $50, the enterprises of country "B" will receive contracts for $30, and the enterprises of country "C" will receive contracts for $20.
38. This section was contributed by Ms Iole De Angelis.
39. "ISO, unique explorer of the invisible cool universe," ESA Presse, no. 21-95, 07 October 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 30 May 1996, available from http://isowww.estec.esa.nl/activities/info/info2195e.html.
40. "Alternate Futures," 2025: CSAF Directed Study on Air and Space Power, Draft 2, 11 March 96, 36.
51. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, eds. G. H. Canavan,. J. C. Solem, and J. D. G. Rather, (Los Alamos, New Mex.: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1992), 117.
53. Alan Harris et al., The Deflection Dilemma: Use vs. Misuse of Technologies for Avoiding Interplanetary Hazards (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Center for Radiophysics and Space Research, 3 Feb 1994).
54. Planetary Defense System (PDS) Mission Statement based on consensus by the 2025 Planetary Defense team (Team B).
55. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, eds. G. H. Canavan, J. C. Solem, and J. D. G. Rather (Los Alamos, N. Mex.: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1992), 85. We have modified the table.
56. Proceedings of the 1993 Space Surveillance Workshop 30 March-1 April 1993, eds. R. W. Miller and R. Sridharan (Lexington, Mass.: Lincoln Laboratory, 1993), 213.
57. John S. Lewis, Rain of Iron and Ice (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996), 76.
59. Tom Gehrels, "Spacewatch," A Presentation Prepared for Plenary Session I: Threat Workshop (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 22 May 1995).
60. Tom Gehrels, "Collisions with Comets and Asteroids," Scientific American (March 1996), 59.
61. A. Carusi et al. "Near-Earth Objects: Present Search Programs," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 129-35.
62. The NASA Ames Space Science Division, The Spaceguard Survey: Hazard of Cosmic Impacts (Moffett Field, Calif.: San Juan Capistrano Research Institute, 1996), 93.
63. Edward Bowell and Karri Muinonen, "Earth-Crossing Asteroids and Comets: Groundbased Search Strategies," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 185.
64. The NASA Ames Space Science Division, 8.1.
67. Lewis, Rain of Iron and Ice, 212.
68. J. H. Darrah, "Near Earth Object Search with Ground Based Electro-Optical Space Surveillance System (GEODSS)," A Presentation Prepared for Plenary Session I: Threat Workshop (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 22 May 1995).
69. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, eds. G. H. Canavan, J. C. Solem, and J. D. G. Rather (Los Alamos, N. Mex.: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1992), 18.
70. 2025 Concept, No. 900412, "Change Detection," 2025 Concepts Database (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996).
71. USAF Scientific Advisory Board, New World Vistas: Air and Space Power for the 21st Century, summary volume (Washington, D.C.: USAF Scientific Advisory Board, 15 December 1995), 20.
72. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 238.
73. Air Superiority, B. F. Cooling, ed. (Washington, D.C.: Center for Air Force History, 1994), 115-78.
74. 2025 Concept, No. 200013, "Quantum Effect Communications," 2025 Concepts Database (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996).
76. A. F. Cheng et al, "Missions to Near Earth Objects," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 651-69.
77. Anonymous, Clementine II WWW Page, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 30 May 1996, available from http://trex.atsc.allied.com.
79. A.F. Cheng et al.; S. Nozette et al., "DoD Technologies and Missions of Relevance to Asteroid and Comet Exploration" and T. D. Jones et al., "Human Exploration of Near Earth Asteroids" from Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 651-710.
80. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234; H. J. Melosh, I.V. Nemchinov and Yu. I. Zetzer, "Non-Nuclear Asteroid Diversion," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 1111-31.
81. LCDR Mark J. Hellstern et al., "Spacelift - Integration of Aerospace Core Competencies," A 2025 White Paper (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College, 1996), 17-36; Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 229-232.
82. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234.
83. T. J. Ahrens and Alan W. Harris, "Deflection and Fragmentation of Near Earth Asteroids," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 922-23.
84. V.A. Simonenko et al., "Defending the Earth Against Impacts from Large Comets and Asteroids," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 949.
85. Roderick Hyde et al., "Cosmic Bombardment III: Ways and Means of Effectively Intercepting the Bomblets," A Presentation Prepared for the NASA NEO Workshop, 14 January 1992.
86. Lowell L. Wood et al., "Cosmic Bombardment IV: Averting Catastrophe In the Here-And-Now," A Presentation to Problems of Earth Protection Against the Impact With NEOs, 26-30 September 1994; B.P. Shafer et al., "The Coupling of Energy to Asteroids and Comets," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 955-1012; and Johndale C. Solem and Charles M. Snell, "Terminal Intercept for Less Than One Orbital Period Warning," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 1013-33.
87. L. R. Sikes and D. M. Davis, "The Yields of Soviet Strategic Weapons," Scientific American (1987): 29-37.
88. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234. The figure reflected in the reference is actually $0, however, we felt modifications to existing systems would be necessary at a cost of at least $1B.
89. Director, Test and Evaluation and Technology Requirements and US Naval War College, "High Energy Particle Beam (HEPB) Warhead," Technologies Initiatives Game 95 (Systems Handbook), 59-61.
90. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234.
91. Melosh, Nemchinov and Zetzer, 1116.
95. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 235.
96. New World Vistas, (unpublished draft, the space applications volume), 113.
97. Melosh, Nemchinov and Zetzer, 1130.
99. New World Vistas, (unpublished draft, the space applications volume), 81.
100. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234-35; New World Vistas, (unpublished draft, the directed energy volume), 24. USAF Scientific Advisory Board estimates laser energy costs at $1-$2 per joule up to the megajoule range.
101. New World Vistas, (unpublished draft, the directed energy volume), 59.
103. Melosh, Nemchinov and Zetzer, 1129-30.
104. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234. The directed energy cost was doubled to account for the large phased array required.
105. Melosh, Nemchinov and Zetzer, 1117-18.
107. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234.
108. Melosh, Nemchinov and Zetzer, 1120.
109. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234.
110. Melosh, Nemchinov and Zetzer, 1125.
112. Proceedings of the Near-Earth-Object Interception Workshop, 234. This figure was obtained by averaging the cost of solar sails and the cost for directed energy systems.
113. Director, Test and Evaluation and Technology Requirements and U.S. Naval War College. "Anti-Material Biological Agents," Technologies Initiatives Game 95 (Systems Handbook), 148-51.
114. 2025 Concept, No. 900393, "Chemical Morphing Weapon," 2025 Concepts Database (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996).
115. Preparing for Planetary Defense, Spacecast 2020 White Paper, R-29.
116. D. Morrison, C. R. Chapman, and Paul Slovic, "The Impact Hazard," in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, ed. by Tom Gehrels (Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1994), 64.
117. 2025 Concept, No. 900394, "Gravity Manipulation," 2025 Concepts Database (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air War College/2025, 1996).